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An unequal distribution of resources within the
family is a special concern for female poverty
Transition to a market economy is accompanied by
a period of greater economic uncertainty. Women are likely to suffer
substantial disadvantages from this uncertainty compared to men as they are,
for example, more likely to lose their job. This not only implies a monetary
loss for the entire family, but also degrades female bargaining power within
the household, possibly further aggravating their well-being. When
intrahousehold inequality—an unequal distribution of resources among family
members—exists, female poverty might be significantly larger than what can
be deduced using standard household-based poverty measures.
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Belief in the existence of gender differences in
risk attitudes is stronger than the evidence supporting them
Many experimental studies and surveys have shown
that women consistently display more risk-averse behavior than men when
confronted with decisions involving risk. These differences in risk
preferences, when combined with gender differences in other behavioral
traits, such as fondness for competition, have been used to explain
important phenomena in labor and financial markets. Recent evidence has
challenged this consensus, however, finding gender differences in risk
attitudes to be smaller than previously thought and showing greater
variation of results depending on the method used to measure risk
aversion.
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How and why do the careers of men and women
differ? What policies could reduce the differences?
The gender wage gap is largely due to men and
women holding different kinds of jobs. This job segregation is partly driven
by gender differences in careers in corporate hierarchies. Research has
shown that the careers of men and women begin to diverge immediately upon
entry into the labor market and that subsequent career progress exacerbates
the divergence. This divergence of career progress explains a large part of
the gender wage gap. Understanding how and why the careers of men and women
differ is necessary to design effective policies that can reduce the gender
differences in hierarchies.
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Gender inequalities in daily time allocation may
have detrimental effects on earnings and well-being
Many countries experience gender differences, of
various magnitudes, in the time devoted to paid work (e.g. market work time)
and unpaid work (e.g. housework and childcare). Since household
responsibilities influence the participation of women, especially mothers,
in the labor market, the unequal sharing of unpaid work, with women bearing
the brunt of housework and childcare, is one of the main drivers of gender
inequality in the labor market. Understanding the factors behind these
gender inequalities is crucial for constructing policies aimed at promoting
gender equality and combating gender-based discrimination.
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Parental leave increases the family–work
balance, but prolonged leave may have negative impacts on mothers’
careers
Numerous studies have investigated whether the
provision and generosity of parental leave affects the employment and career
prospects of women. Parental leave systems typically provide either short
unpaid leave mandated by the firm, as in the US, or more generous and
universal leave mandated by the government, as in Canada and several
European countries. Key economic policy questions include whether, at the
macro level, female employment rates have increased due to parental leave
policies; and, at the micro level, whether the probability of returning to
work and career prospects have increased for mothers after childbirth.
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Family-friendly policies increase women’s labor
force participation, benefiting them, their families, and society at
large
Female labor force participation is mainly
driven by the value of their market wages versus the value of their
non-market time. Labor force participation varies considerably across
countries. To understand this international variation, it is important to
further consider differences across countries in institutions, non-economic
factors such as cultural norms, and public policies. Such differences
provide important insights into what actions countries might take to further
increase women's participation in the labor market.
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To what extent can different attitudes toward
competition for men and women explain the gender gap in labor markets?
Differences in labor market outcomes for
women and men are highly persistent. Apart from discrimination, one
frequently mentioned explanation could be differences in the attitude toward
competition for both genders. Abundant empirical evidence indicates that
multiple influences shape attitudes toward competition during different
periods of the life cycle. Gender differences in competitiveness will not
only influence outcomes during working age, but also during early childhood
education. In order to reduce the gender gap in educational and labor market
outcomes, it is crucial to understand when and why gender gaps in
competitiveness arise and to study their consequences.
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Despite major efforts at equal pay legislation,
gender pay inequality still exists—how can this be put right?
Despite equal pay legislation dating back 50
years, American women still earn 18% less than their male counterparts. In
the UK, with its Equal Pay Act of 1970, and France, which legislated in
1972, the gap is 17% and 10% respectively, and in Australia it remains
around 14%. Interestingly, the gender pay gap is relatively small for the
young but increases as men and women grow older. Similarly, it is large when
comparing married men and women, but smaller for singles. Just what can
explain these wage patterns? And what can governments do to speed up wage
convergence to close the gender pay gap? Clearly, the gender pay gap
continues to be an important policy issue.
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Over the last 50 years women have been
increasing their participation in the labor market and in the crime
market
In recent decades, women's participation in the
labor market has increased considerably in most countries and is converging
toward the participation rate of men. Though on a lesser scale, a similar
movement toward gender convergence seems to be occurring in the criminal
world, though many more men than women still engage in criminal activity.
Technological progress and social norms have freed women from the home,
increasing their participation in both the labor and the crime market. With
crime no longer just men's business, it is important to investigate female
criminal behavior to determine whether the policy prescriptions to reduce
crime should differ for women.
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Despite a plummeting working-age population,
Japan has sustained its labor force size because of surging employment among
women
As the third-largest economy in the world and
a precursor of global trends in population aging, Japan's recent experiences
provide important lessons regarding how demographic shifts affect the labor
market and individuals’ economic well-being. On the whole, the labor market
showed a remarkable stability during the financial crisis, despite decades
of economic stagnation and sluggish real wage growth. Rapid population
aging, however, has brought substantial changes to individuals in the labor
market, most notably women, by augmenting labor demand in the healthcare
services industry.
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