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Despite major efforts at equal pay legislation,
gender pay inequality still exists—how can this be put right?
Despite equal pay legislation dating back 50
years, American women still earn 18% less than their male counterparts. In
the UK, with its Equal Pay Act of 1970, and France, which legislated in
1972, the gap is 17% and 10% respectively, and in Australia it remains
around 14%. Interestingly, the gender pay gap is relatively small for the
young but increases as men and women grow older. Similarly, it is large when
comparing married men and women, but smaller for singles. Just what can
explain these wage patterns? And what can governments do to speed up wage
convergence to close the gender pay gap? Clearly, the gender pay gap
continues to be an important policy issue.
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Over the last 50 years women have been
increasing their participation in the labor market and in the crime
market
In recent decades, women's participation in the
labor market has increased considerably in most countries and is converging
toward the participation rate of men. Though on a lesser scale, a similar
movement toward gender convergence seems to be occurring in the criminal
world, though many more men than women still engage in criminal activity.
Technological progress and social norms have freed women from the home,
increasing their participation in both the labor and the crime market. With
crime no longer just men's business, it is important to investigate female
criminal behavior to determine whether the policy prescriptions to reduce
crime should differ for women.
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Despite a plummeting working-age population,
Japan has sustained its labor force size because of surging employment among
women
As the third-largest economy in the world and
a precursor of global trends in population aging, Japan's recent experiences
provide important lessons regarding how demographic shifts affect the labor
market and individuals’ economic well-being. On the whole, the labor market
showed a remarkable stability during the financial crisis, despite decades
of economic stagnation and sluggish real wage growth. Rapid population
aging, however, has brought substantial changes to individuals in the labor
market, most notably women, by augmenting labor demand in the healthcare
services industry.
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Sexual orientation seems to affect job access
and satisfaction, earning prospects, and interaction with colleagues
Studies from countries with laws against
discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation suggest that gay and
lesbian employees report more incidents of harassment and are more likely to
report experiencing unfair treatment in the labor market than are
heterosexual employees. Both gay men and lesbians tend to be less satisfied
with their jobs than their heterosexual counterparts. Gay men are found to
earn less than comparably skilled and experienced heterosexual men. For
lesbians, the patterns are ambiguous: in some countries they have been found
to earn less than their heterosexual counterparts, while in others they earn
the same or more.
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Greater representation of women may better
represent women’s preferences but may not help economic performance
Women's representation on corporate boards,
political committees, and other decision-making teams is increasing, this is
in part because of legal mandates. Evidence on team dynamics and gender
differences in preferences (for example, risk-taking behavior, taste for
competition, prosocial behavior) shows how gender composition influences
group decision-making and subsequent performance. This works through
channels such as investment decisions, internal management, corporate
governance, and social responsibility.
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Gender quotas for women on boards of directors
improve female share on boards but firm performance effects are mixed
Arguments for increasing gender diversity on
boards of directors by gender quotas range from ensuring equal opportunity
to improving firm performance. The introduction of gender quotas in a number
of countries has increased female representation on boards. Current research
does not justify gender quotas on grounds of economic efficiency. In many
countries the number of women in top executive positions is limited, and it
is not clear from the evidence that quotas lead to a larger pool of female
top executives, who are the main pipeline for boards of directors. Thus,
other supplementary policies may be necessary if politicians want to
increase the number of women in senior management positions.
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Can free-trade policies help to reduce gender
inequalities in employment and wages?
Women consistently work less in the labor
market and earn lower wages than men. While economic empowerment of women is
an important objective in itself, women's economic activity also matters as
a condition for sustained economic growth. The political debate on the labor
market impacts of international trade typically differentiates workers by
their educational attainment or skills. Gender is a further dimension in
which the impacts of trade liberalization can differ. In a globalizing world
it is important to understand whether and how trade policy can contribute
toward enhancing gender convergence in labor market outcomes.
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A mix of policies could be the solution to
reducing discrimination in the labor market
Discrimination is a complex, multi-factor
phenomenon. Evidence shows widespread discrimination on various grounds,
including ethnic origin, sexual orientation, gender identity, religion or
beliefs, disability, being over 55 years old, or being a woman. Combating
discrimination requires combining the strengths of a range of
anti-discrimination policies while also addressing their weaknesses. In
particular, policymakers should thoroughly address prejudice (taste-based
discrimination), stereotypes (statistical discrimination), cognitive biases,
and attention-based discrimination.
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Despite increasingly generous parental leave schemes their
advantages over subsidized childcare remain unclear
Most OECD countries spend substantially more on maternity leave
schemes than on early childcare. However, given high tax burdens and rapidly aging
populations, female labor force participation is critically needed. Moreover, it is important
to know whether the main beneficiaries, the children themselves, reap more benefits from one
or the other in the long term. The first cohorts exposed to the introduction or extension of
maternity/paternity leave schemes and subsidized childcare programs have now completed
education and entered the labor market, allowing an investigation of these programs’ long-term
economic effects.
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